Section 1: What is Prosody?
What is prosody?
One way to appreciate prosody is to listen to sentences where
the prosody is not quite right. For this, we'd like you to meet two
robots, each with differently deficient prosody: R1D1 has defective
speech rhythm. R1P1 has defective pitch control.
| Duration |
Clomid 100mg purchase |
R1D1 has two moods: when he is playful, he picks a random
number between 10 and 400 milliseconds and use that for the phone
duration. |
|
| Buy clomid tablets uk |
When he is serious, he assigns the same duration value to each
phone. |
| Pitch |
R1P1 is playful |
R1P1 doesn't know how to control pitch: when he is playful, he
creates random melody for his sentence. |
|
| Clomid 50mg buy online |
When he is serious, he uses the same pitch values, or
monotone. |
We use the term "prosody" broadly, meaning a time series of
speech-related information that's not predictable from a reasonable
window (i.e. word-sized or sentence-sized) applied to the phoneme
sequence. This could include pitch, duration, amplitude, and
gestures.
Viewed in the large, prosody is a parallel channel for
communication, carrying some information that cannot be simply
deduced from the lexical channel. All aspects of prosody are
transmitted by muscle motions, and in most of them, the recipient
can perceive, fairly directly, the motions of the speaker. Even in
intonation, pitch has a Canada pharmacy vogue marketing relationship to
the underlying muscle tensions.
While pitch is an important component of prosody, it has been
known since the 1950s (Fry, 1955; Fry, 1958; Bolinger, 1958;
Lieberman, 1960; Hadding-Koch, 1961) that duration and amplitude
are also important components. Recent literature (Maekawa, 1998;
Kehoe et al., 1995; Sluijter and van Heuven, 1996; Pollock et al.,
1990; Sluijter et al., 1997; Turk and Sawusch, 1996, Erickson, 1998
and references therein) also provides support for amplitude,
spectral tilt and jaw movement as important components of
prosody.
Clearly, with our broad definition of prosody, hand gestures,
eyebrow and face motions, can be considered prosody, because they
carry information that modifies and can even reverse the meaning of
the lexical channel. In this tutorial, however, we concentrate on
pitch (f0) modeling.
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Section 3.
- Prosody used to convey lexical meaning: Stress, accentual and
tone languages.
-
- Stress: English is an example of a stress language. Stress
location is part of the lexical entry of each English word. For
example, "apple" and "orange" both have stress on the first
syllable, while "banana" has stress on the second syllable. When an
English word is spoken in isolation in declarative intonation, f0
typically peaks on the stressed syllable.
- Accentual language: Japanese is an example of an accentual
language. A word is lexically marked as accented (on a
particular syllable) or un-accented. A simplified
description is that pitch rises near the beginning of an
accentual phrase and falls on the accented syllable. For detailed
analysis, see Beckman and Pierrehumbert (1988).
- Tone language: Mandarin Chinese is an example of a lexical tone
language. Each syllable is lexically marked with one of the four
lexical tones (and occasionally, with a fifth, neutral tone). Tones
have distinctive pitch contours. Altering the pitch contour may
have the consequence of changing the lexical meaning of a word, and
perhaps the meaning of a sentence.
- Prosody used to convey non-lexical information: Intonation type
(Question vs. declarative sentences).
-
Languages may employ prosody in different ways to differentiate
declarative sentences from questions. A general trend is that
questions are associated with higher pitch somewhere in the
sentence, most commonly near the end. This may be manifested as a
final rising contour, or higher/expanded pitch range near the end
of the sentence. In English, declarative intonation is marked by a
falling ending while yes-no question intonation is marked by a
rising one, as shown on the last digit "one" in the English
examples. Russian question, on the other hand, uses strong emphasis
on a key word instead of a rising tail. Chinese questions are
manifested by an expanded pitch range near the end of the
sentences, however, the speaker preserves the lexical tone shapes
(Yuan, Shih, Kochanski 2002).
Examples of declarative and question
intonation in English, Russian, and Chinese.
- Prosody used to convey discourse functions: Focus, prominence,
discourse segments, etc.
-
Topic initialization is typically associated with high pitch
(Hirschberg and Pierrehumbert, 1986; Sluijter and Terken, 1993).
Pitch is typically raised in the discourse initial section and
lowered in the discourse final section.
Also, new information in the discourse structure is typically
accented while old information de-accented.
- Prosody used to convey emotion.
-
Most experiments studying emotional speech study stylized
emotion, as delivered by actors and actresses. In these acted-out
emotions, a few categories of emotions can be reliably identified
by listeners, and one can find consistent acoustic correlates of
these categories. For example, excitement is expressed by high
pitch and fast speed, while sadness is expressed by low pitch and
slow speed. Hot anger is characterized by over-articulation, fast,
downward pitch movement, and overall elevated pitch. Cold anger
shares many attributes with hot anger, but the pitch range is set
lower.
The study of emotion in natural speech is a lot more
complicated. It is generally recognized that speakers show mixed
feelings and ambiguous states of mind, and the emotions do not fall
into clear cut categories.
- Prosody tied to the physical system: declination.
-
There is a tendency for pitch to decline during the course of an
utterance ('t Hart and Cohen, 1973; Maeda, 1976). This effect is at
least partially caused by the drop of sub-glottal pressure
(Lieberman, 1967; Fujisaki, 1983; Strik and Boves, 1995). Listeners
compensate for this effect: When presented with two accented words
of equal pitch height, listeners judge the second one to be more
prominent (Pierrehumbert 1979).
Below is an example of Mandarin Chinese (Shih, 2000) showing the
pitch declination profile in a sequence of high level tones, which
are marked as "H" in the figure. The pitch drops about 50 Hz from
the highest "H" to the final "H". 
